General Strain Theory has a greater theoretical sophistication than its traditional counterpart, not only in terms of specifying different types of strain but, most importantly, in recognizing the relationship between the individual and society is more-complex than that suggested by writers like Merton. Disadvantages. Relatively few studies have examined intervening processes that involve factors other than emotions. The present research, using a sample of 294 university students, attempted to address these limitations. All strain theories acknowledge that only a minority of strained individuals turn to crime. In contrast, Cohen (1955) observed that most juvenile offending is non-utilitarian in nature. However, research on the conditioning effects of these factors has produced mixed results. For instance, it was argued that individuals experience strain when they aspire to achieve monetary success but do not expect to attain it, because they perceive the goal of success to be out of reach. Males are much more likely than females to engage in crime and delinquency, with the gender difference in offending being greatest for serious offenses. Whereas Broidy and Agnew (1997) predicted that depression mitigates the criminogenic effect of anger, thereby suppressing female delinquency, DeCoster and Zito (2010) find no such mitigating effect. Measures of strain typically predict crime and delinquency, even after factoring in variables from rival crime theories. Unlike adults, juveniles generally do not have the legal ability to remove themselves from these environments, nor do they have the same access to legal resources. Peoples methods of coping with stress can take two general avenues, the first avenue being the use of legitimate means of achieving goals or coping with stress, such as seeking professional help, and the second being illegitimate means, for example, bullying kids at school because of frustrations of not fitting in. Looking for a flexible role? This type of strain involves the loss of something valued and encompasses a wide range of undesirable events or experiences, such as the theft of valued property, the loss of a romantic relationship, or the withdrawal of parental love. Further, familiarity with these works will help to ensure that researchers have knowledge of the latest developments in GST. Free resources to assist you with your university studies! To address the mixed body of results produced by empirical studies, Agnew (2013) has further specified the conditions under which a deviant response to strain is more or less likely. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Over the years of its development, strain theorists have attempted to broaden the initial scope of this perspective. In contrast, most studies that have examined conditioning factors are based on general population samples. These articles provide researchers with many helpful suggestions for testing GST. Abstract. Crime is one possible response. Agnew, Robert ( 1992) 'Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency', Criminology 30 (1): 47-87. This paper tests Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST) of crime and delinquency. Earlier versions of strain theory have been criticized for focusing on a narrow range of possible strains, for their inability to explain why only some strained individuals resort to crime or delinquency, and for limited empirical support. The data indicate that children who obtain high scores on a combined measure of negative emotionality/low constraint tend to report elevated levels of illicit drug use during adolescence and adulthood, controlling for other relevant variables. Foundation for a general strain theory of delinquency and crime. They may also reflect a need for greater theoretical specification. . Slocum (2010) examines longitudinal data on substance use and finds partial support for the GST explanation of continuity and change. Gang fights, vandalism, and other such delinquencies do not seem to be directed toward the achievement of conventional success goals. Other research, however, does not find the distinction between objective and subjective measures of strain to be consequential (Lin & Mieczkowski, 2011). Strain theories are generally macrolevel theories, and they share several core assumptions: first, the idea that social order is the product of a generally cohesive set of norms; second, that those norms are widely shared by community members; and third, that deviance and community reactions to deviance are essential . The Strain Theory basically states that its the entire lower classes fault for crime in the cities and the upper classes have nothing to do with it. This is only one example of how Agnew began his revision. General strain theory (GST) provides a unique explanation of crime and delinquency. As result, adolescents are more likely to respond to strain in an immature and ineffective manner. The existence of unpleasant stimuli can lead to delinquent behavior through the following avenue: Agnew (1992) states that a person may seek an escape from the negative stimuli, by trying to dispose of the stimuli. When individuals accept the goal of monetary success but lack the legal means to attain it, they may lose faith in the value of hard work or playing by the rules [see Messner & Rosenfeld, 1994].) Drawing on the stress literature, Agnew (2006) broadened the definition of strain to include events or conditions that are disliked by individuals (p. 4). 6 How does the strain theory explain crime? Tests of GST, however, point to other areas where further specification may be required. GST has been partly successful in overcoming these limitations. According the GST, the trait of aggressiveness helps to fuel persistent antisocial behavior for at least three reasons. A criticism made by Bernard (1987), is that the strain . GST recognizes that the experience of goal blockage can also result from the failure to achieve expected outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive an expected income) as well as the failure to achieve fair and just outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive a deserved income). Third, aggressive individuals tend to sort themselves into environments characterized by high levels of strain. GST was designed, in part, to address criticisms leveled against previous versions of strain theory. Agnew (1992), however, argues that other types of goal blockage are important and may have a stronger relationship to crime and delinquency. Continuing Relevance. The second major type of strain involves the presentation of noxious or negatively valued stimuli. Aggressive children may also frustrate their peers and teachers, leading to social rejection. It is important to develop a more complete understanding of the relationship between strain and crime because such research may guide crime-control efforts. GST was designed primarily to explain why individuals differ in their levels of crime and delinquency. Most empirical tests of GST have been conducted in the United States and are based on data from adolescent surveys. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Messer and Rosenfeld (1994) state that the heavy emphasis on American Dream encourages criminal impulses while creating a weak normative environment. Females still get angry but may also have a high propensity to experience the emotions of depression and anxiety simultaneously. 1 What are weaknesses of the strain theory? Agnew describes that by removing a positively valued stimuli it has the potential to cause strain. First, they find that neighborhood disadvantage and instability are associated with elevated levels of neighborhood strain. Unexpectedly, they observe that the females in their sample exhibit higher levels of anger and depression. For example, females are more likely than males to react to academic problems with anger and depression. (Broidy 2001:10), Lisa Broidy, from the University of New Mexico, examined cross sectional data of 896 undergraduate students from seven different disciplines, who participated in self report surveys. Furthermore, the GST's broad scope makes document forgery impossible. Likewise, a study by Hoffmann and Ireland (2004) produced mixed results regarding the impact of school-context variables on delinquency. Typically, strained individuals pursue legal coping strategies, such as filing a complaint, turning to a friend for emotional support, or hoping for a better future. General strain theory regards strain as having three distinct sources: (1) blockage of desired goals, (2) withdrawal or loss of valued objects, and (3) introduction of negative stimuli. Some strains may have a relatively strong relationship to crime, while others have a weak relationship to crime. In addition, GST predicts that individuals who possess this trait will tend to provoke negative reactions from others, leading to elevated levels of strain. To place these limitations into context one needs only draw on the literature documenting the characteristics of a "good" or "effective" theory. These factors are said to constrain females, limiting their ability to engage in crime. Agnew (1992) identifies three major sources of strain, being, the prevention or blockage of achieving positively valued goals, the removal of positively valued stimuli, and the threat or presentation of negatively valued stimuli. Using the survey data to test three hypothesizes, Broidy found that a failure to achieve goals that were set by an individual were less likely to result in anger where a failure to achieve goals due unfair circumstances were much more likely to cause negative emotions. Limited evidence suggests that situation-based and trait-based emotions may operate differently, with situation-based emotions playing a larger role in mediating the relationship between recent strains and offending (Mazerolle, Piquero, & Capowich, 2003; Moon et al., 2009). The initial statement of GST (Agnew, 1992), which constituted a more fully developed version of the revised theory, was published several years later under the title, Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Delinquency. This initial statement was followed by several revisions and extensions of GST, including articles that specified gender differences in response to strain (Broidy & Agnew, 1997), the macro-level implications of GST (Agnew, 1999), the types of strain that are most relevant to crime (Agnew, 2001), and that further specified the conditions under which strain will have a greater or lesser effect on crime (Agnew, 2013). Examples of interventions that may have potential in this area include parenting and anger-management programs (for overviews, see Agnew, 1995b, 2006). Also, while early tests of GST typically examined the relationship between strain and general delinquency, the theory has since been applied to a variety of specific deviant behaviors. Strain also predicted violence and property crime among males but not among females. Disclaimer: This is an example of a student written essay.Click here for sample essays written by our professional writers. In particular, large segments of the population internalize the American Dream ethos but lack the legal or legitimate means to attain monetary wealth, which contributes to goal blockage and frustration (see Agnew, 1987). Some empirical evidence regarding general strain theory shows a strong correlate between negative emotions (anger) caused by strain and criminal activity. However, these predictions were not supported. It is associated with higher levels of stress, which promotes more substance use in the future. According to Agnew (2001) studies show that delinquency peaks when desires, goals, and the expectation of achieving the desires or goals are low, and delinquency is lowest when desires, goals and the expectation of accomplishing the goals are high(Agnew 2001:). (2) Strain as the disjunction between just or fair outcomes and actual outcome. The findings of the study suggest that the main direction of the casual relationship flows from strain to delinquency. These chronic, high-rate offenders typically exhibit highly aggressive behavior as young children, engage in high levels of delinquency during adolescence, and persist in serious offending as they grow older (Moffitt, 1993). Certain school-level measures (such as perceived fairness) predicted delinquency at the individual level, but others did not (such as school problems). In comparison to objective measures of strain, Froggio and Agnew (2007) find that subjective measures of strain are more strongly related to offending. To advance research in this area, Agnew (2013) now recommends that quantitative studies be based on samples that contain a sizable number of individuals who possess a strong propensity to offend. Often times anger leads an individual to seek revenge and is also a strong motivator for action. 2 What are the limitations of Mertons strain theory? In particular, they often lack coping resources that are available to those in wealthier communities, such as money, power, and conventional social support. Many previous studies rely heavily on samples from Western countries, mostly the United States; thus, possible cultural influences are ignored. Merton argues that the struggle to accumulate wealth is the chief cause of strain (Merton 1938: 670). To make strain theory more applicable to juvenile delinquency, Cohen offered a revised version of the theory, which placed less emphasis on monetary success. According to Bernard (1990), angry/frustrated individuals often have difficulty trusting others, attribute hostile motives to strangers, and view aggression as appropriate or justifiable in many different circumstances (see also Agnew, 2006). In response to inconsistent empirical findings, Agnew (2001, 2013) has further specified the types of strain that are relevant to offending as well as the factors that are said to condition the effects of strain on crime. Jang and Song (2015) observe that subjective strain fully mediates the impact of objective strain on the delinquency of middle-school students. Although it was anticipated that strain would have a stronger effect on violence in neighborhoods characterized by low social control, the findings did not support such a pattern. Although most young offenders age out of crime as they enter adulthood, some individuals maintain high levels of offending throughout much of the life course. Aggressive individuals can be described as having a difficult temperamentthey are irritable and have a low tolerance for frustration. This test is important because it assessed the possibility of a reciprocal relationship between strain and delinquency. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. There is some evidence that negative emotions other than anger may help to account for the relationship between strain and offending, at least for certain deviant outcomes (e.g., Bao, Haas, & Pi, 2007; Ganem, 2010; Hay & Meldrum, 2010; Jang & Johnson, 2003; Kaufman, 2009; Piquero et al., 2010). 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